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Capital
New Delhi
28°36′50″N 77°12′30″E
Largest city
Mumbai (city proper)
Delhi (metropolitan area)
Official languages
HindiEnglish[d][8]
Recognised national languages
None[9]
Recognised regional languages
State level and Eighth Schedule[10]
8th Scheduled
AssameseBengaliBoroDogriGujaratiHindiKannadaKashmiriKonkaniMaithiliMalayalamManipuriMarathiNepaliOdiaPunjabiSanskritSantaliSindhiTamilTeluguUrdu
State level[e]
KokborokLepchaMizoSikkimeseall the 8th scheduled languages (except Sindhi, Kashmiri and Dogri[f])
Native languages
447 languages[g]
Religion (2011)
79.8% Hinduism
14.2% Islam
2.3% Christianity
1.7% Sikhism
0.7% Buddhism
0.4% Jainism
0.23% unaffiliated
0.65% other[13]
Demonym(s)
Indianothers
Government
Federal parliamentary republic
• President
Droupadi Murmu
• Vice-President
Jagdeep Dhankhar
• Prime Minister
Narendra Modi
• Chief Justice
Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud
Legislature
Parliament
• Upper house
Rajya Sabha
• Lower house
Lok Sabha
Independence from the United Kingdom
• Dominion
15 August 1947
• Republic
26 January 1950
Area
• Total
3,287,263[2] km2 (1,269,219 sq mi)[h] (7th)
• Water (%)
9.6
Population
• 2023 estimate
Neutral increase 1,428,627,664(1st)
• 2011 census
Neutral increase 1,210,854,977] (2nd)
• Density
423.7/km2 (1,097.4/sq mi) (30th)
GDP (PPP)
2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $13.119 trillion (3rd)
• Per capita
Increase $9,183[18] (127th)
GDP (nominal)
2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $3.73 trillion (5th)
• Per capita
Increase $2,612[18] (139th)
Gini (2019)
Negative increase 35.7
medium
HDI (2021)
Increase 0.633[20]
medium · 132nd
Currency
Indian rupee (₹) (INR)
Time zone
UTC+05:30 (IST)
DST is not observed.
Date format
dd-mm-yyyy[i]
Driving side
left[21]
Calling code
+91
ISO 3166 code of
IN
Internet TLD
.in (others)
Modern humans arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago.[28][29][30] Their long occupation, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.[31] Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus river basin 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.[32] By 1200 BCE, an archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, had diffused into India from the northwest.[33][34] Its evidence today is found in the hymns of the Rigveda. Preserved by an oral tradition that was resolutely vigilant, the Rigveda records the dawning of Hinduism in India.[35] The Dravidian languages of India were supplanted in the northern and western regions.[36] By 400 BCE, stratification and exclusion by caste had emerged within Hinduism,[37] and Buddhism and Jainism had arisen, proclaiming social orders unlinked to heredity.[38] Early political consolidations gave rise to the loose-knit Maurya and Gupta Empires based in the Ganges Basin.[39] Their collective era was suffused with wide-ranging creativity,[40] but also marked by the declining status of women,[41] and the incorporation of untouchability into an organised system of belief.[k][42] In South India, the Middle kingdoms exported Dravidian-languages scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms of Southeast Asia.[43]
In the early medieval era, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established on India's southern and western coasts.[44] Muslim armies from Central Asia intermittently overran India's northern plains,[45] eventually founding the Delhi Sultanate, and drawing northern India into the cosmopolitan networks of medieval Islam.[46] In the 15th century, the Vijayanagara Empire created a long-lasting composite Hindu culture in south India.[47] In the Punjab, Sikhism emerged, rejecting institutionalised religion.[48] The Mughal Empire, in 1526, ushered in two centuries of relative peace,[49] leaving a legacy of luminous architecture.[l][50] Gradually expanding rule of the British East India Company followed, turning India into a colonial economy, but also consolidating its sovereignty.[51] British Crown rule began in 1858. The rights promised to Indians were granted slowly,[52][53] but technological changes were introduced, and modern ideas of education and the public life took root.[54] A pioneering and influential nationalist movement emerged, which was noted for nonviolent resistance and became the major factor in ending British rule.[55][56] In 1947 the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two independent dominions,[57][58][59][60] a Hindu-majority Dominion of India and a Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan, amid large-scale loss of life and an unprecedented migration.[61]
India has been a federal republic since 1950, governed through a democratic parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society. India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to almost 1.4 billion in 2022.[62] During the same time, its nominal per capita income increased from US$64 annually to US$2,601, and its literacy rate from 16.6% to 74%. From being a comparatively destitute country in 1951,[63] India has become a fast-growing major economy and a hub for information technology services, with an expanding middle class.[64] India has a space programme with several planned or completed extraterrestrial missions. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.[65] India has substantially reduced its rate of poverty, though at the cost of increasing economic inequality.[66] India is a nuclear-weapon state, which ranks high in military expenditure. It has disputes over Kashmir with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th century.[67] Among the socio-economic challenges India faces are gender inequality, child malnutrition,[68] and rising levels of air pollution.[69] India's land is megadiverse, with four biodiversity hotspots.[70] Its forest cover comprises 21.7% of its area.[71] India's wildlife, which has traditionally been viewed with tolerance in India's culture,[72] is supported among these forests, and elsewhere, in protected habitats.
History
Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India
Ancient India
Manuscript illustration, c. 1650, of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana, composed in story-telling fashion c. 400 BCE – c. 300 CE[83]
By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or Homo sapiens, had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved.[28][29][30] The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago.[28] After 6500 BCE, evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan.[84] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[85][84] the first urban culture in South Asia,[86] which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India.[87] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.[86]
During the period 2000–500 BCE, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to the Iron Age ones.[88] The Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism,[89] were composed during this period,[90] and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.[88] Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.[89] The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this period.[91] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[88] In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,[92] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[92]
Cave 26 of the rock-cut Ajanta Caves
In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas. The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.[95] Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal,[99] and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire. The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas. The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.
The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and Southeast Asia. In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women. By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms. Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.[] This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.
Culture
Main article: Culture of India
A Sikh pilgrim at the Harmandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, in Amritsar, Punjab
Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[380] During the Vedic period (c. 1700 BCE – c. 500 BCE), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, theology and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga, and mokṣa, were established.[75] India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nation's major religions.[381] The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads,[382] the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement,[381] and by Buddhist philosophy.[383]
Visual art
Main article: Indian art
India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of Eurasia, especially in the first millennium, when Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[384] Thousands of seals from the Indus Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but a few with human figures. The "Pashupati" seal, excavated in Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best known.[385][386] After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.[386][387] Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in durable materials, or coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India Mauryan art is the first imperial movement.[388][389][390] In the first millennium CE, Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[391] Over the following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than ancient Greek sculpture but showing smoothly flowing forms expressing prana ("breath" or life-force).[392][393] This is often complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva and Parvati.[394][395]
Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi, Sarnath and Amaravati,[396] or is rock cut reliefs at sites such as Ajanta, Karla and Ellora. Hindu and Jain sites appear rather later.[397][398] In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors probably usually served all communities.[399] Gupta art, at its peak c. 300 CE – c. 500 CE, is often regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as at the Elephanta Caves.[400][401] Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after c. 800 CE, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.[402] But in the South, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze had a sustained period of great achievement; the large bronzes with Shiva as Nataraja have become an iconic symbol of India.[403][404]
Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the Ajanta Caves are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly accomplishment in Gupta times.[405][406] Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. No doubt the style of these was used in larger paintings.[407] The Persian-derived Deccan painting, starting just before the Mughal miniature, between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.[408][409] The style spread to Hindu courts, especially among the Rajputs, and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most innovative, with figures such as Nihâl Chand and Nainsukh.[410][411] As a market developed among European residents, it was supplied by Company painting by Indian artists with considerable Western influence.[412][413] In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday life, done on paper, were urban folk art from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting.
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